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aiding the tribes in forming organizations. Moreover, the act could be

rejected on any reservation by referendum.

The response to the 1934 act was indicative of the Indians' ability to

rise above adversity. About 160 tribes, bands, and Alaska villages adopted

written constitutions, some of which combined traditional practices with

modern parliamentary methods. The revolving credit fund helped Indians

build up their herds and improve their economic position in other ways.

Borrowers from the fund were tribal corporations, credit associations, and

cooperatives that loaned to individual Indians and to group enterprises on

a multimillion-dollar scale. Educational and health services were also

improved through federal aid.

Originally, the United States exercised no guardianship over the

person of the Indian; after 1871, when internal tribal matters became the

subject of national legislation, the number and variety of regulatory

measures multiplied rapidly. In the same year that the Indian

Reorganization Act was passed, Congress significantly repealed 12 statutes

that had made it possible to hold Indians virtual prisoners on their

reservations. Indians were then able to come and go as freely as all other

persons. The Snyder Act of 1924, extending citizenship to all Indians born

in the United States, opened the door to full participation. But few

Indians took advantage of the law, and because of their lack of interest a

number of states excluded Indians from the franchise. Organization of

tribal governments following the Reorganization Act, however, seemed to

awaken an interest in civic affairs beyond tribal boundaries, and when

Indians asked for the franchise, they were generally able to secure it

eventually, though not until 1948 in Arizona and New Mexico, after lengthy

court action.

The federal courts consistently upheld the treaties made with Indian

tribes and also held that property may not be taken from Indians, whether

or not a treaty exists, "except in fair trade." The latter contention was

offered by the Hualapai Indians against the Santa Fe Railway. The company

was required by the courts in 1944 to relinquish about 500,000 acres it

thought had been granted to it by the U.S. The lands had been occupied

since prehistory by the Indians, without benefit of treaty recognition, and

the Supreme Court held that, if the occupancy could be proved, as it

subsequently was, the Indians were entitled to have their lands restored.

In 1950 the Ute Indians were awarded a judgment against the United States

of $31,750,000 for lands taken without adequate compensation. A special

Indian Claims Commission, created by act of Congress on August 13, 1946,

received many petitions for land claims against the United States and

awarded, for example, about $14,789,000 to the Cherokee nation, $10,242,000

to the Crow tribe, $3,650,000 to the Snake-Paiute of Oregon, $3,000,000 to

the Nez Perce, and $12,300,000 to the Seminole. The period from the early

1950s to the 1970s was one of increasing federal attempts to establish new

policies regarding the Indians, and it was also a period in which Indians

themselves became increasingly vocal in their quest for an equal measure of

human rights and the correction of past wrongs. The first major shift in

policy came in 1954, when the Department of the Interior began terminating

federal control over those Indians and reservations deemed able to look

after their own affairs. From 1954 to 1960, support to 61 tribes and other

Indian groups was ended by the withdrawal of federal services or trust

supervision. The results, however, were unhappy. Some extremely

impoverished Indian groups lost many acres of land to private exploitation

of their land and water resources. Indians in certain states became subject

exclusively to state laws that were less liberal or sympathetic than

federal laws. Finally the protests of Indians, anthropologists, and others

became so insistent that the program was decelerated in 1960. In 1961 a

trained anthropologist was sworn in as commissioner of Indian Affairs, the

first anthropologist ever to hold that position. Federal aid expanded

greatly, and in the ensuing decade Indians were brought into various

federal programs for equal economic opportunity. Indian unemployment

remained severe, however.

American Indians came more and more into public attention in the late

20th century as they sought (along with other minorities) to achieve a

better life. Following the example set by black civil-rights activists of

the 1960s, Indian groups drew attention to their cause through mass

demonstrations and protests. Perhaps the most publicized of these actions

were the 19-month seizure (1970-71) of Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay

(California) by members of the militant American Indian Movement (AIM) and

the February 1973 occupation of a settlement at the Oglala Sioux Pine Ridge

(South Dakota) reservation; the latter incident was the second conflict to

occur at Wounded Knee. Representing an attempt to gain a more traditional

political power base was the establishment in 1971 of the National Tribal

Chairman's Association, which eventually grew to include more than 100

tribes.

Indian leaders also expanded their sphere of influence into the

courts; fishing, mineral, forest, casino gambling, and other rights

involving tribal lands became the subject of litigation by the Puyallup

(Washington state), the Northern Cheyenne (Montana), and the Penobscot and

the Passamaquoddy (Maine), among others. Although control of economic

resources was the focus of most such cases, some groups sought to regain

sovereignty over ancient tribal lands of primarily ceremonial and religious

significance.

facts about American Indians today

Source: Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior

Who is an Indian?

No single federal or tribal criterion establishes a person's identity as

an Indian. Tribal membership is determined by the enrollment criteria of

the tribe from which Indian blood may be derived, and this varies with each

tribe. Generally, if linkage to an identified tribal member is far removed,

one would not qualify for membership.

To be eligible for Bureau of Indian Affairs services, an Indian must (1)

be a member of a tribe recognized by the federal government, (2) be of one-

half or more Indian blood of tribes indigenous to the United States; or (3)

must, for some purposes, be of one-fourth or more Indian ancestry. By

legislative and administrative decision, the Aleuts, Eskimos and Indians of

Alaska are eligible for BIA services. Most of the BIA's services and

programs, however, are limited to Indians living on or near Indian

reservations.

The Bureau of the Census counts anyone an Indian who declares himself or

herself to be an Indian. In 1990 the Census figures showed there were

1,959,234 American Indians and Alaska Natives living in the United States

(1,878,285 American Indians, 57,152 Eskimos, and 23,797 Aleuts). This is a

37.9 percent increase over the 1980 recorded total of 1,420,000. The

increase is attributed to improved census taking and more self-

identification during the 1990 count.

Why are Indians sometimes referred to as Native Americans?

The term, “Native American,” came into usage in the 1960s to denote the

groups served by the Bureau of Indian Affairs: American Indians and Alaska

Natives (Indians, Eskimos and Aleuts of Alaska). Later the term also

included Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in some federal programs.

It, therefore, came into disfavor among some Indian groups. The preferred

term is American Indian. The Eskimos and Aleuts in Alaska are two

culturally distinct groups and are sensitive about being included under the

“Indian” designation. They prefer “Alaska Native.”

How does one trace Indian ancestry and become a member of a tribe?

The first step in tracing Indian ancestry is basic genealogical research

if one does not already have specific family information and documents that

identify tribal ties. Some information to obtain is: names of ancestors;

dates of birth; marriages and death; places where they lived; brothers and

sisters, if any; and, most importantly, tribal affiliations. Among family

documents to check are Bibles, wills, and other such papers. The next step

is to determine whether one's ancestors are on an official tribal roll or

census by contacting the tribe.

What is a federally recognized tribe?

There are more than 550 federally recognized tribes in the United States,

including 223 village groups in Alaska. “Federally recognized” means these

tribes and groups have a special, legal relationship with the U.S.

government. This relationship is referred to as a government-to-government

relationship.

A number of Indian tribes and groups in the U.S. do not have a federally

recognized status, although some are state-recognized. This means they have

no relations with the BIA or the programs it operates. A special program of

the BIA, however, works with those groups seeking federal recognition

status. Of the 150 petitions for federal recognition received by the BIA

since 1978, 12 have received acknowledgment through the BIA process, two

groups had their status clarified by the Department of the Interior through

other means, and seven were restored or recognized by Congress.

Reservations.

In the U.S. there are only two kinds of reserved lands that are well-

known: military and Indian. An Indian reservation is land reserved for a

tribe when it relinquished its other land areas to the U.S. through

treaties. More recently, Congressional acts, Executive Orders, and

administrative acts have created reservations. Today some reservations have

non-Indian residents and land owners.

There are approximately 275 Indian land areas in the U.S. administered

as Indian reservations (reservations, pueblos, rancherias, communities,

etc.). The largest is the Navajo Reservation of some 16 million acres of

land in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Many of the smaller reservations are

less than 1,000 acres with the smallest less than 100 acres. On each

reservation, the local governing authority is the tribal government.

Approximately 56.2 million acres of land are held in trust by the

United States for various Indian tribes and individuals. Much of this is

reservation land; however, not all reservation land is trust land. On

behalf of the United States, the Secretary of the Interior serves as

trustee for such lands with many routine trustee responsibilities delegated

to BIA officials.

The states in which reservations are located have limited powers over

them, and only as provided by federal law. On some reservations, however, a

high percentage of the land is owned and occupied by non-Indians. Some 140

reservations have entirely tribally owned land.

Taxes.

Indians pay the same taxes as other citizens with the following

exceptions: federal income taxes are not levied on income from trust lands

held for them by the United States; state income taxes are not paid on

income earned on an Indian reservation; state sales taxes are not paid by

Indians on transactions made on an Indian reservation; and local property

taxes are not paid on reservation or trust land.

Laws.

As U.S. citizens, Indians are generally subject to federal, state, and

local laws. On Indian reservations, however, only federal and tribal laws

apply to members of the tribe unless the Congress provides otherwise. In

federal law, the Assimilative Crimes Act makes any violation of state

criminal law a federal offense on reservations. Most tribes now maintain

tribal court systems and facilities to detain tribal members convicted of

certain offenses within the boundaries of the reservation.

Language and Population

American Indian Languages

Spoken at Home by American Indian Persons 5 Years and Over in Households:

1990

|Languages |Number of |

| |households |

|All American Indian languages |281,990 |

|Algonquian languages |12,887 |

|Athapascan Eyak languages |157,694 |

|Caddoan languages |354 |

|Central and South American Indian languages |431 |

|Haida |110 |

|Hokan languages |2,430 |

|Iroquoian languages |12,046 |

|Keres |8,346 |

|Muskogean languages |13,772 |

|Penutian languages |8,190 |

|Siouan languages |19,693 |

|Tanoan languages |8,255 |

|Tlingit |1,088 |

|Tonkawa |3 |

|Uto-Aztecan languages |23,493 |

|Wakashan and Salish languages |1,105 |

|Yuchi |65 |

|Unspecified American Indian languages |12,038 |

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. The American Indian languages shown above are

the major languages.

Many American places have been named after Indian words. In fact,

about half of the states got their names from Indian words. Here are some:

|Alabama |may come from Choctaw meaning “thicket-clearers” |

| |or “vegetation-gatherers.” |

|Alaska |corruption of Aleut word meaning “great land” or |

| |“that which the sea breaks against.” |

|Arizona |from the Indian “Arizonac,” meaning “little |

| |spring” or “young spring.” |

|Arkansas |from the Quapaw Indians |

|Chicago, |Algonquian for "garlic field." |

|Ill | |

|Chesapeake |Algonquian name of a village |

|(bay) | |

|Connecticut|from an Indian word (Quinnehtukqut) meaning |

| |“beside the long tidal river.” |

|Dakota |from the Sioux tribe, meaning “allies.” |

|Illinois |Algonquin for “tribe of superior men.” |

|Indiana |meaning “land of Indians.” |

|Iowa |probably from an Indian word meaning “this is the|

| |place” or “the Beautiful Land.” |

|Kansas |from a Sioux word meaning “people of the south |

| |wind.” |

|Kentucky |from an Iroquoian word “Ken-tah-ten” meaning |

| |“land of tomorrow.” |

|Massachuset|from Massachusett tribe of Native Americans, |

|ts |meaning “at or about the great hill.” |

|Michigan |from Indian word “Michigana” meaning “great or |

| |large lake.” |

|Minnesota |from a Dakota Indian word meaning “sky-tinted |

| |water.” |

|Mississippi|from an Indian word meaning “Father of Waters.” |

|Malibu |believed to come from the Chumash Indians. |

|Manhattan |Algonquian, believed to mean "isolated thing in |

| |water." |

|Milwaukee |Algonquian, believed to mean "a good spot or |

| |place." |

|Missouri |named after the Missouri Indian tribe. “Missouri”|

| |means “town of the large canoes.” |

|Narraganset|named after the Indian tribe |

|t | |

|Nebraska |from an Oto Indian word meaning “flat water.” |

|Niagara |named after an Iroquoian town, "Ongiaahra." |

|Ohio |from an Iroquoian word meaning “great river.” |

|Oklahoma |from two Choctaw Indian words meaning “red |

| |people.” |

|Pensacola |Choctaw for "hair" and "people." |

|(Florida) | |

|Roanoke |Algonquian for "shell money" (Indian tribes often|

|(Virginia) |used shells that were made into beads called |

| |wampum, as money). |

|Saratoga |believed to be Mohawk for "springs (of water) |

|(New York) |from the hillside." |

|Sunapee |Pennacook for "rocky pond." |

|(lake in | |

|New | |

|Hampshire) | |

|Tahoe (the |is Washo for "big water." |

|lake in | |

|California/| |

|Nevada) | |

|Tennessee |of Cherokee origin; the exact meaning is unknown.|

|Texas |from an Indian word meaning “friends.” |

|Utah |is from the Ute tribe, meaning “people of the |

| |mountains.” |

|Wisconsin |French corruption of an Indian word whose meaning|

| |is disputed. |

|Wyoming |from the Delaware Indian word, meaning “mountains|

| |and valleys alternating”; the same as the Wyoming|

| |Valley in Pennsylvania. |

American Indian Loan Words

From their earliest contact with traders and explorers, American

Indians borrowed foreign words, often to describe things not previously

encountered. The language exchange went both ways. Today, thousands of

place names across North America have Indian origins - as do hundreds of

everyday English words.

Many of these "loan words" are nouns from the Algonquian languages

that were once widespread along the Atlantic coast. English colonists,

encountering unfamiliar plants and animals—among them moose, opossum, and

skunk—borrowed Indian terms to name them. Pronunciations generally changed,

and sometimes the newcomers shortened words they found difficult; for

instance, "pocohiquara" became "hickory."

Some U.S. English Words with Indian Origins:

anorak from the Greenlandic Inuit "annoraq"

bayou from the Choctaw "bayuk"

chipmunk from the Ojibwa "ajidamoon," red squirrel

hickory from the Virginia Algonquian "pocohiquara"

hominy from the Virginia Algonquian "uskatahomen"

igloo from the Canadian Inuit "iglu," house

kayak from the Alaskan Yupik "qayaq"

moccasin from the Virginia Algonquian

moose from the Eastern Abenaki "mos"

papoose from the Narragansett "papoos," child

pecan from the Illinois "pakani"

powwow from the Narragansett "powwaw," shaman

quahog from the Narragansett "poquauhock"

squash from the Narragansett "askutasquash"

succotash from the Narragansett "msickquatash," boiled corn

tepee from the Sioux "tipi," dwelling

toboggan from the Micmac "topaghan"

tomahawk from the Virginia Algonquian "tamahaac"

totem from the Ojibwa "nindoodem," my totem

wampum from the Massachusett "wampumpeag"

wigwam from the Eastern Abenaki "wik'wom" Natives.

Population

While the Indian population was never dense, the idea that the Indian has

held his own, or even actually increased in number, is a serious error,

founded on the fact that most official estimates begin with the federal

period, when the native race was already wasted by nearly three centuries

of white contact and in many regions entirely extinct. An additional source

of error is that the law recognizes anyone of even remote Indian ancestry

as entitled to Indian rights, including in this category, especially in the

former "Five Civilized Nations" of Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), several

thousand individuals whose claims have always been stoutly repudiated by

the native tribal courts. Moreover, the original Indian was a full-blood,

while his present-day representative has often so little aboriginal blood

as to practically a white man or a negro. Many broken tribes of today

contain not a single full-blood, and some few not even one of half Indian

blood. The Cherokee Nation, officially reported to number 36,000 persons of

pure or mixed Cherokee blood contains probably not 4000 of even fairly pure

blood, the rest being all degrees of admixture even down to one-sixty-

fourth or less of Indian blood, besides some 7000 claimants officially

recognized, but repudiated by the former Indian Government. In

Massachusetts an official census of 1860 reported a "Yartmouth tribe" of

105 persons, all descended from a single Indian woman with a negro husband

residing there in 1797. It is obvious that the term Indian cannot properly

be applied to such diluted mixtures.

The entire aboriginal population of Florida, of the mission period,

numbering perhaps 30,000, is long since extinct without descendants, the

Seminole being a later emigrations from the Creeks. The aborigines of South

Carolina, counting in 1700 some fifteen tribes of which the Catawba, the

largest tribe, numbered some six thousand souls, are represented today by

about a hundred mixed blood Catawba, together with some scattered mongrels,

whose original ancestry is a matter of doubt.

The same holds good upon the plains, The celebrated Pawnee tribe of some

10,000 souls in 1838 is now reduced to 650; the Kansas of 1500 within the

same period have now 200 souls, and the aborigines of Texas, numbering in

1700 perhaps some 40,000 souls in many small tribes with distinct

languages, is extinct except for some 900 Caddo, Wichita, and Tonkawa. The

last-named, estimated at 1,000 in 1805, numbered 700 in 1849, 300 in 1861,

108 in 1882, and 48 in 1908, including several aliens. In California the

aboriginal population has decreased within the same period from perhaps a

quarter of a million to perhaps 15,000, and nearly the same proportion of

decrease holds good along the whole Pacific coast into Alaska. Not only

have tribes dwindled, but whole linguistic stocks have become extinct

within the historic period. The only apparent exceptions to the general

rule of decay are the Iroquois, Sioux, and Navaho, the first two of whom

have kept up their number by wholesale adoptions, while the Navaho have

been preserved by their isolation. The causes of decrease may be summarized

as: (1) introduced diseases and dissipation, particularly smallpox, sexual

disease, and whiskey; (2) wars, also hardship and general enfeeblement

consequent upon frequent removals and enforced change from accustomed

habitat. The present Indian population north of Mexico is approximately

400,000, or whom approximately 265,000 are within the United States proper.

other native Americans

The Eskimo (Inuit and Yupiit) and Aleuts are people of the treeless

shores and tundra-covered coastal hinterlands of northernmost North America

and Greenland and the eastern tip of the Chukchi Peninsula of Siberia.

Custom alone designates them Eskimo and Aleuts rather than American Indians

like all other native Americans, from whom they are distinguished

principally by their language.

The Eskimo are an Asian people who are distinguishable from the American

Indians by their more Asian features, by the relative smallness of their

hands and feet, and by a few less obvious traits.

Eskimo culture was totally adapted to an extremely cold, snow- and

icebound environment in which vegetable foods were almost nonexistent,

trees were scarce, and caribou, seal, walrus, and whale meat, whale

blubber, and fish were the major food sources. The Eskimo used harpoons to

kill seals, which they hunted either on the ice or from skin-covered, one-

person canoes known as kayaks. Whales were hunted using larger boats called

umiaks. In the summer most Eskimo families hunted caribou and other land

animals with the help of bows and arrows. Dogsleds were the basic means of

transport on land. Eskimo clothing was fashioned of caribou furs, which

provided protection against the extreme cold. Most Eskimo wintered in

either snow-block houses called igloos or semisubterranean houses of stone

or sod over wooden or whalebone frameworks. In summer many Eskimo lived in

animal-skin tents. Their b asic social and economic unit was the nuclear

family, and their religion was animistic.

Eskimo life changed greatly in the 20th century owing to increased

contacts with societies to the south. Snowmobiles have generally replaced

dogs for land transport, and rifl es have replaced harpoons for hunting

purposes. Outboard motors, store-bought clothing, and numerous other

manufactured items have entered the culture, and money, unknown in

traditional Eskimo economy, has become a necessity. Many Eskimo have

abandoned their nomadic hunting pursuits to move into northern towns and

cities or to work in mines and oil fields. Others, particularly in Canada,

have formed cooperatives to market their handicrafts, fish catches, and

ventures in tourism.

Aleut - a native of the Aleutian Islands and western portion of the

Alaska Peninsula of northwest North America. Aleuts speak three mutually

intelligible dialects and are closely related to the Eskimo in language,

race, and culture. The earliest people, the Paleo-Aleuts, arrived in the

Aleutian Islands from the Alaskan mainland about 2000 BC. The Aleuts hunted

seals, sea otters, whales, sea lions, sometimes walrus, and, in some areas,

caribou and bears. Fish, birds, and mollusks were also taken. One-man and

two-man skin boats known as bidarkas, or kayaks, and large, open, skin

boats (Eskimo umiaks) were used. Aleut women wove fine grass basketry;

stone, bone, and ivory were also worked. Ancient Aleut villages were

situated on the seashore near fresh water, with a good landing for boats

and in a position safe from surprise attack from other Aleuts or

neighbouring tribes. Villages were usually composed of related families. A

chief might govern several villages or an island, but there was no chief

over all Aleuts or even over several islands.

epilogue

A long time ago North America was very different from the way it is

today. There were no highways, cars, or cities. There were no

schools, malls, or restaurants. But even long, long ago, there were still

communities. People made their own homes, food, and clothing from the

plants and animals they found around them.

Americans today owe a great deal to the First Americans. Over half of

the states and many of the cities, rivers and streets still have Native

Americans names. Nearly 550 Indian words are part of everyday English. Many

foods, such as potatoes, corn, peanuts, turkey, tomatoes, cocoa, beans were

borrowed by later settlers from the Native Americans. It was from the

Indians that other Americans learned how to use rubber.

In fact without the help of the Native Americans many other early

settlers might never have survived.

In conclusion I would like to cite the words of George W. Bush, today’s

President of the U.S., which he said in National American Indian Heritage

Month proclamation, dated November 19, 2001:

“As the early inhabitants of this great land, the native peoples of

North America played a unique role in the shaping of our Nation's

history and culture. During this month when we celebrate Thanksgiving,

we especially celebrate their heritage and the contributions of

American Indian and Alaska Native peoples to this Nation. [ …]

American Indian and Alaska Native cultures have made remarkable

contributions to our national identity. Their unique spiritual,

artistic, and literary contributions, together with their vibrant

customs and celebrations, enliven and enrich our land.

As we move into the 21st century, American Indians and Alaska

Natives will play a vital role in maintaining our Nation's strength

and prosperity. Almost half of America's Native American tribal

leaders have served in the United States Armed Forces, following in

the footsteps of their forebears who distinguished themselves during

the World Wars and the conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, and the Persian

Gulf. […]

During National American Indian Heritage Month, I call on all

Americans to learn more about the history and heritage of the Native

peoples of this great land. Such actions reaffirm our appreciation and

respect for their traditions and way of life and can help to preserve

an important part of our culture for generations yet to come. “

main sourses

1. Encyclopaedia Britannica, electronic edition, 1999

2. Gilbert Legay, Atlas of Indians of Northern America, Barrons Educ, 1995

3. Keith C. Wilbur, The New England Indians, The Globe Pequot Press, 1978

4. Bryn O’Calladhan, An Illustrated Hystory of the USA, Longman, 1990

5. V.M. Pavlotsky, American studies, Karo, St.- Pt., 2000

6. http://www.first-americans.spb.ru/n4/win/current.htm – Russian Pages of

American Indian Almanac

7. http://www.nativetech.org - Native American technologies and art

8. http://etext.virginia.edu/subjects/Native-American.html – electronic

texts by and about American Indians

9. http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/start.htm – very useful encyclopaedia

10. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/k12/naha/maps/nausa.html – tribe finder

11. http://www.infoplease.com – statistics and useful data

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