Контрольная: Переведенная на английский лекция по теме Money and banking (деньги и банковское дело), the role of banks (роль банков), modern banking (современная банковская система)

Контрольная: Переведенная на английский лекция по теме Money and banking (деньги и банковское дело), the role of banks (роль банков), modern banking (современная банковская система)

MONEY AND BANKING

(ДЕНЬГИ И БАНКОВСКОЕ ДЕЛО)

Money and its Funсtions. Деньги, их функции.

Although the crucial feature of money is its acceptance as

the means of payment оr medium of exchange, money has other functions. It

serves as a standard of-value, a unit of account, a store of value and

ft a standard of deferred payment. We discuss each of the functions of

money in turn.

The Medium of Exchange. Средство обращения.

Money, the medium of exchange, is used in one-half of almost аЦ exchange.

Workers exchange labour services for money. People buy and sell goods in

exchange for money. We accept money not to consume it directly but because it

can subsequently be used to pay things we do wish to consume. Money is

the medium through, which people exchange goods and services.

To see that society benefits from a medium of exchange, imagine a barter

economy.

A barter economy has no medium of exchange. Goods are traded

directly or swapped for other goods.

In a barter economy, the seller and the buyer each must want something the other

has to offer. Each person is simultaneously a seller and a buyer. In order to

see a film, you must hand over in exchange a good or service that the

cinema manager wants. There has to be a double coincidence of wants.

You have to find a cinema where the manager wants what you have to offer in

exchange.

Trading is very expensive in a barter economy. People must spend a tot of

time and effort finding others with whom they can make mutually satisfactory

swaps. Since time and effort are scarce resources, a barter economy is

wasteful. The use of monеу - any commodity generally accepted in payment for

goods, services, and debts - makes the trading process simpler and more

efficient.

Other Functions of Моnеу. Другие функции денег

Money can also serve as a standard of value. Society

considers it convenient to use a monetary unit to determine relative

costs of different goods and services. In this function money appears as

the unit of account, is the unit in which prices are quoted and

accounts are kept.

In Russia prices are quoted in roubles; in Britain, in pounds sterling; in the

USA, in US dollars; in France, in French francs. It is usually convenient to

use the units in which the medium of exchange is measured as the unit of

account as well. However there are exceptions. During the rapid German

inflation of 1922 - 1923 when prices in marks were changing very quickly,

German shopkeepers found it more convenient to use dollars as the unit of

account. Prices were quoted in dollars even though payment was made in marks,

the German medium of exchange.

The situation in Russia nowadays reminds of that of in Germany.

Money is a store of value because it can be used to make

purchases in the future.

To be accepted in exchange, money has to be a store of value. Nobody would

accept money as payment for goods supplied today if the money was going to

be worthless when they tried to buy goods with it tomorrow. But money is

neither the only nor necessarily the best store of value. Houses, stamp

collections, and interest-bearing bank accounts all serve as stores of

value. Since money pays no interest and its real purchasing power

is eroded by inflation, there are almost certainly better ways to store

value.

Finally, money serves as a standard of deferred payment or a

unit of account over time. When you borrow, the amount to be repaid next year

is measured in pounds sterling or in some other hard currency. Although

convenient, this is not an essential function of money. UK citizens can get

bank loans specifying in dollars the amount that must be repaid next year. Thus

the key feature of money is its use as a medium of exchange. For this, it must

act as a store of value as well. And it is usually, though not invariably,

convenient to make money the unit of account and standard of deferred payment as

well.

Different Kinds of Money. Различные виды денег

In prisoner-of-war camps, cigarettes served as money. In the 19th

century money was mainly gold and silver coins. These are examples of

commodity money, ordinary goods with industrial uses (gold) and

consumption uses (cigarettes), which also serve as a medium of exchange. To use

a commodity money, society must either cut back on other uses of that commodity

or devote scarce resources to producing additional quantities of the commodity.

But there are less expensive ways for society to produce money.

A token money is a means of payment whose value or purchasing

power as money greatly exceeds its cost of production or value in uses other

than as money.

A $10 note, is worth far more as money than as a 3 x 6 inch piece of

high-quality paper. Similarly, the monetary value of most coins exceeds the

amount you would get by melting them down and selling off

the metals they contain. By collectively agreeing to use token money, society

economizes on the scarce resources required to produce money as a medium of

exchange. Since the manufacturing costs are tiny, why doesn't everyone

make $10 notes?

The essential condition for the survival of token money is the restriction of

the right to supply it. Private production is illegal:

Society enforces the use of token money by making it legal tender. The

law says it must be accepted as a means of payment.

In modern economies, token money is supplemented by IOU money.

An IOU money is a medium of exchange based on the debt of a

private firm or individual.

A bank deposit is IOU money because it is a debt of the bank. When you

have a bank deposit the bank owes you money. You can write a cheque to yourself

or a third party and the bank is obliged to pay whenever the cheque is

presented. Bank deposits are a medium of exchange because they are generally

accepted as payment.

VOCABULARY NOTES

the means of payment - средство платежа

medium of exchange - средство обращения

a standard of value - мера стоимости

a unit of account - единица учета

a store of value - средство сбережения (сохранения стоимости)

a standard of deferred payment - средство погашения долга

subsequently - впоследствии

a barter economy - бартерная экономика

to swap (also swop; syn. to exchange, to barter) - обменивать, менять

to hand over in exchange - передать, вручить в обмен

a double coincidence of wants - двойное совпадение потребностей

a monetary unit - денежная единица

to remind of - напоминать

to be worthless - обесцениваться

an interest-bearing bank account - счет в банке с выплатой процентов

to pay interest - приносить процентный доход

to erode - зд. фактически уменьшать

hard currency - твердая (конвертируемая) валюта

soft currency - неконвертируемая валюта

invariably - неизменно, постоянно

prisoner-of-war camp - лагерь военнопленных

commodity money - деньги - товар

token money - символические деньги (дензнаки)

inch - дюйм (равен 2,5 см)

to melt down - расплавить

tiny costs - мизерные затраты

legal tender - законное платежное средство

to supplement - дополнять

IOU money - I owe you - я вам должен; деньги - долговое обязательство

a bad deposit - вклад в банке

THE ROLE OF BANKS (РОЛЬ БАНКОВ)

The following story is going to explain the role of banks. In the past most

societies used different objects as money. Some of these were valuable because

they were rare and beautiful, others- because they could be eaten or

used. Early forms of money like these were used to buy goods. They were also

used to pay for marriages, fines and debts. But although everyday

objects were extremely practical kinds of cash in many ways, they had some

disadvantages, too. For example, it was difficult to measure their value

accurately, divide some of them into a -wide range of amounts, keep

some of them for a long time, use them to make financial plans for the future.

For reasons such as these, some societies began to use another kind of money,

that is, precious metals.

People used gold, gold bullion, as money. Those were dangerous times,

and people wanted a safe place to keep their gold. So they deposited it

with goldsmiths, people who worked with gold for jewellery and

so on and also had a guarded vault to keep it safe in. And when people

wanted some of their gold to pay for things with, they went and fetched

it from the goldsmith.

Two developments turned these goldsmiths into bankers. The first was that people

found it a lot easier to give the seller a letter than it was to fetch some

gold and then physically hand it over to him. This letter transferred

some of the gold they bad at the goldsmith's to the seller. This letter we would

nowadays call a cheque. And, of course, once these letters or cheques,

became acceptable as a way of paying for goods, people felt that the gold

they had deposited with the goldsmith, was just as good as gold in their own

pockets. And as letters or cheques, were easier to carry around than gold, and

a lot less dangerous, people started to say that their money holdings

were what they had with them plus their deposits. So a system of deposits was

started. The second development was that goldsmiths realized they had a great

deal of unused gold lying in their vaults doing nothing. This development was

actually of greater importance than the first.

Now let's turn to the first bank loan ever and see what happened. A firm

asked a goldsmith for a loan. The goldsmith realized that some of the gold in

his vault could be lent to the firm, and of course he asked the firm to pay it

back later with a little interest. Of course, at that moment the

goldsmith was short of gold, it wasn't actually his gold, but he

reckoned it was unlikely that everyone who had deposited gold with him would

want it back at the same time, at any rate - not before the firm had

repaid him his gold with a little interest. He thought it safe enough.

To understand what actually happened in this simple transaction let's

consider the following table.

Таbl. 6. Goldsmiths as bankers

	Assets	Liabilities
1. Old-fashioned goldsmith 2. Gold lender 3. Deposit lender Step 1 4. Deposit lender Step 2	Gold $100 Gold $90 + loan 10 Gold $l00 + loan $10 Gold $90+loan $10	Deposits $100 Deposits $100 Deposits $110 Deposits $100

The first row shows what the goldsmith did before he made this loan- He had a

hundred dollars of gold, which he owed to the people who had deposited

it with him, so his assets and liabilities were the same. But when he

lent, say, $10 of gold to the firm, he actually had only $90 of gold in his

vault plus the value of his loan. His assets still equalled his

liabilities, but he was going to get some interest

It so happened that the firm, that took out the loan, didn't really

want to carry that $10 of gold around, so It asked me goldsmith if, instead of

actually taking the gold, it could be given a deposit. The third row of

Tabl. 6 shows what happened then. Although the goldsmith's assets and

liabilities were the same, but were then worth $110, not $100.

When the firm wrote a cheque for $10, and that person came in to

collect his $10 worth of gold, the goldsmith's assets failed, but so

did his liabilities (the fourth row of the table). The important point to

notice here is that it made no difference to the goldsmith whether his

initial loan was in actual gold or in a form of a deposit.

Now let's turn to the question of reserves. Reserves are the amount

of gold that is immediately available in the vault to meet depositors'

demands. People originally deposited $100 of gold with the goldsmith. The

goldsmith lent $10, leaving himself with $90. As a banker he was

relying on the fact that not everyone would want their gold back at the

same time. If they had done, be couldn't have paid out. His reserves of $90

were not enough.

The goldsmith in the table has a 100% reserve ratio. The reserve ratio

is the ratio of reserves to deposits. Once he has made his loan, he has a 90%

deposit ratio. This is a small risk with a small profit. How much dare

he lend out in order to make a profit through his interest charges? What

are the risks involved? Suppose the goldsmith took too much of a risk. He

lent 80% of the gold he had. This panicked people. They doubted

he could pay them all back, he was bound to lose some of the gold he had

lent, so they rushed to get their gold back before it was too late. That was

what we would now call a run on the bank, a financial panic. And

the financial panic leads to exactly what people fear: the bank

cannot pay them, goes bankrupt, and they go bankrupt as well.

VOCABULARY NOTES

rare - редкий

lines - штрафы

to measure their value accurately - точно измерить их стоимость

(цен­ность)

to divide into a wide range of amounts - разделить на много частей

(ма­леньких или больших)

precious metals - драгоценные металлы

gold bullion - золотой слиток

to deposit with - хранить, вкладывать

a goldsmith - золотых дел мастер

worked with gold for jewellery - делал золотые украшения

a guarded vault - охраняемый подвал, хранилищ:

to fetch - приносить, доставать

to transfer - переводить, передавать

once these letters or cheques,

became acceptable as a way of paying for goods - как только

(когда) эти письма, или чеки, стали приниматься при

оплате товаров

their money holdings- деньги, которые им принадлежали, которыми они владели

a bank loan - банковская ссуда, заем

a little interest - небольшой процент

the goldsmith was short of gold - у мастера не было достаточно золота

to reckon - полагать, считать

at any rate - во всяком случае

a transaction - сделка

to owe - быть должным

assets and liabilities - активы и пассивы

the vа1uе of his loan - стоимость ссуды, которую он дал

to equal - равняться, быть равным

the firm didn't really want to саrry that gold around, so it asked the

gold­smith If, instead of actually taking the gold, it could be given a deposit

- фир­ма не хотела держать золото при себе (носить золото с собой) и вместо

того, чтобы на самом деле его забрать, попросила мастера принять это золото на

хранение в виде вклада

(they) were worth $110 - их стоимость составляла, они оценивались (имели

ценность) в 110 долларов

to write (syn. to draw, to issue, to make out) a cheque - выписать чек

his assets failed - зд. его активы снизились

to fail - (о банках) обанкротиться

initial loan - первоначальная ссуда

reserves - резервы

the amount of gold that is immediately available in the vault - запасы

(ко­личество) золота, которое всегда находится (и может быть немедленно

получено) в хранилище банка

depositors' demands - требования вкладчиков

leaving himself with $90 -оставив себе только 90 долларов

to rely on - рассчитывать, надеяться на что-либо

the reserve ratio • резервная норма

dare - осмеливаться

to make a profit through his interest charges - получить прибыль за счет

платежа процентов

What are the risks involved? - Чем он рискует?

to panic (panicked) -пугать, приводить в панику

to doubt - сомневаться

he was bound to lose some of the gold - он непременно должен был

по­терять часть золота

a run on the bank - натиск вкладчиков на банк

the financial panic - финансовая паника

to fear - опасаться, страшиться

to go bankrupt - обанкротиться

MODERN BANKING

(СОВРЕМЕННАЯ БАНКОВСКАЯ СИСТЕМА)

The goldsmith bankers were an early example of a financial intermediary.

A financial intermediary is an institution that specializes in

bringing lenders and borrowers together.

A commercial bank borrows money from the public, crediting them

with a deposit. The deposit is a liability of the bank. It is money owed to

depositors. In turn the bank lends money to firms, households or governments

wishing to borrow.

Banks are not the only financial intermediaries. Insurance companies,

pension funds, and building societies also take in money in order to relend

it. The crucial feature of banks is that some of their liabilities are used as

a means of payment, and are therefore part of the money stock.

Commercial banks are financial intermediaries with a government licence to make

loans and issue deposits, including deposits against, which cheques can

be written.

Let's start by looking at the present-day UK banking system. Although the

details vary from country to country, the general principle is much the same

everywhere.

In the UK, the commercial banking system comprises about 600 registered banks,

the National Girobank operating through post offices, and a dozen

trustee saving banks. Much the most important single group is the London

clearing banks. The clearing banks are so named because they have a

central clearing house for handling payments by cheque.

A clearing system is a set of arrangements in which debts between

banks are settled by adding up all the transactions in a given period and

paying only the net amounts needed to balance inter-bank accounts.

Suppose you bank with Barclays but visit a supermarket that banks with

Lloyds. To pay for your shopping you write a cheque against your deposit at

Barclays. The supermarket pays this cheque into its account at Lloyds. In turn,

Lloyds presents the cheque to Barclays, which will credit Lloyds'

account at Barclays and debit your account at Barclays by an equivalent

amount. Because you purchased goods from a supermarket using a different bank,

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